注释

1Freedom of Information Act, Pub.L.No.89-487, 80 Stat.250 (codified as amended at 5 U.S.C.§552 (2012) ) .参见Patricia M.Wald, The Freedom of Information Act:A Short Case Study in the Perils and Paybacks of Legislating Democratic Values, 33 Emory L.J.649, 650 (1984) 。

2例如在Honeywell Technical Solutions, Inc.v.Department of the AirF orce案中, 法院指出联邦行政机关从企业那里获得的信息, 对于竞争对手价值重大, 其可以利用这些信息提升中标政府采购项目的概率。参见779 F.Supp.2d14, 18 (D.D.C.2011) 。

3参见John M.Ackerman&Irma E.Sandoval-Ballesteros, The Global Explosion of Freedom of Information Laws, 58 Admin.L.Rev.85, 97 (2006) 。

4如最为重要、根本的争议是知情权的性质问题。参见Heidi Kitrosser, Secrecy in the Immigration Courts and Beyond:Considering the Right to Know in the Administrative State, 39 Harv.C.R.-C.L.L.Rev.95, 126-30 (2004) ;Thomas I.Emerson, The First Amendment and the Right to Know:Legal Foundations of the Right to Know, 1976 Wash.U.L.Q.1, 14 (1976) 。

5参见毕洪海:《瑞典信息公开原则的诞生与演进》, 《环球法律评论》2016年第3期, 第107页。

6参见Mark Fenster, The Transparent Fix:Advocating Legal Rights and Their Alternatives in the Pursuit of a Visible State, 73 U.Pitt.L.Rev.443, 451-66 (2012) ;Patricia M.Wald, The Freedom of Information Act:A Short Case Study in the Perils and Paybacks of Legislating Democratic Values, 33 Emory L.J.649, 660 (1984) 。

7参见Margaret B.Kwoka, FOIA, Inc., 65 Duke L.J.1361, 1369-70 (2016) 。

8参见Antonin Scalia, The Freedom of Information Act Has No Clothes, 6 Regulation, 14, 15 (1982) 。

9参见U.S.Gov’t Accountability Office, LCD-78-120, Government Field Offices Should Better Implement the Freedom of Information Act ii (1978) 。

10数据来源于Frequent Filers:Businesses Make FOIA Their Business, Society Professional Journalists (July 3, 2006) , http://www.spj.org/rrr.asp?ref=31&t=foia, 最近访问时间[2017-05-02]。

11参见Margaret B.Kwoka, FOIA, Inc., 65 Duke L.J.1361, 1379-80 (2016) 。不过, 有学者调查发现事实上新闻媒体机构的一些申请并不正式, 有时仅仅给行政机关打了个电话而已;媒体还有获得信息的其他方式。这些情况均可能会影响统计的准确性。参见William L.Casey, Jr., John E.Marthinsen&Laurence S.Moss, Enterpreneurship, Productivity, and the Freedom of Information Act:Protecting Circumstantially Relevant Business Information, Lexington Books, 1983, p.34。

12参见Frequent Filers:Businesses Make FOIA Their Business, Society Professional Journalists (July 3, 2006) , http://www.spj.org/rrr.asp?ref=31&t=foia, 最近访问时间[2017-05-02]。

13The Freedom of Information Reform Act of 1986;Uniform Freedom of Information Act Fee Schedule and Guidelines, 52Fed.Reg.10, 012, 10, 017-18 (Mar.27, 1987) .

14参见Margaret B.Kwoka, Inside FOIA, Inc., 126 Yale L.J.F.265, 265-66 (2016) 。

15132 Cong.Rec.S14296-98 (1986) (statement of Sen.Patrick Leahy) .

16参见David E.Pozen, Freedom of Information beyond the Freedom of Information Act, 165 U.Pa.L.Rev.1097, 1112, n.83 (2017) 。

17参见Margaret B.Kwoka, FOIA, Inc., 65 Duke L.J.1361, 1382-1414 (2016) ;April Klein&Tao Li, Acquiring and Trading on Complex Information:How Hedge Funds Use the Freedom of Information Act 7, http://ssrn.com/abstract2653879, 最近访问时间[2018-03-31]。

18参见William L.Casey, Jr., John E.Marthinsen&Laurence S.Moss, Enterpreneurship, Productivity, and the Freedom of Information Act:Protecting Circumstantially Relevant Business Information, Lexington Books, 1983, pp.81-85;Antonio Gargano et al., The Freedom of Information Act and the Race Towards Information Acquisition 1, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2517075, 最近访问时间[2018-03-31]。

19参见Margaret B.Kwoka, FOIA, Inc., 65 Duke L.J.1361, 1414-15 (2016) 。

20Oregon Natural Desert Ass’n v.Bibles, 83 F.3d 1168 (9th Cir.1996) .

21[美]理查德·J.皮尔斯著:《行政法》 (第五版) , 苏苗罕译, 中国人民大学出版社2016年版, 第267页。

22492 U.S.136, 156-157 (1989) .

23参见Laurence Tai, Fast Fixes for FOIA, 52 Harv.J.on Legis.455, 485 (2015) 。

24参见Antonin Scalia, The Freedom of Information Act Has No Clothes, 6 Regulation 14, 17 (1982) 。

25Renegotiation Board v.Banner Craft, 415 U.S.1, 22 (1974) .

26NLRB v.Robbins Tire&Rubber Co., 437 U.S.214, 242 (1978) .

27参见Susan L.Beesley&Theresa A.Newman Glover, Note, Developments Under the Freedom of Information Act-1986, 1987 Duke L.J.521, 524 (1987) 。

28参见Robert G.Vaughn, Consumer Access to Product Safety Information and the Future of the Freedom of Information Act, 5 Admin.L.J.Am.U.673, 678 (1991) 。

29参见Note, Protecting Confidential Business Information from Federal Agency Disclosure After Chrysler Corp.v.Brown, 80 Colum.L.Rev.109, 113 (1980) 。

30Chrysler Corp.v.Brown, 441 U.S.281, 291-93 (1979) .

31参见Nancy J.White, FOIA and the Crying Contractor:Confidential Information or Substantial Competitive Harm?, 32The Constr.L.29 (2012) 。

32参见Nancy J.White&Kenneth J.Sanney, Managing the Risks of FOIA-Able Trade Secrets, 14 Wake Forest J.Bus.&Intell.Prop.L.314, 320 (2014) 。

33General Services Administration v.Benson, 415 F.2d 878 (9th Cir.1969) .

34U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Government Operations, Freedom of Information Act Requests for Business Data and Reverse-FOIA Lawsuits, 25th Rept., 20 July 1978, p.16.

35参见James T.O’Reilly, Regaining a Confidence:Protection of Business Confidential Data through Reform of the Freedom of Information Act, 34 Admin.L.Rev.263 (1982) 。

36参见Nicole Washington, Transparency v.Intelligence:Corporate Information Privacy Rights Under the Freedom of Information Act and Whether Inquiring Minds Still Have A Right to Know, 12 Hous.Bus.&Tax L.J.194 (2011-2012) 。

37使用例外四而提起的诉讼约占相关信息公开诉讼的49%。参见Kathleen Vermazen Radez, The Freedom of Information Act Exemption 4:Protecting Corporate Reputation in the Post-Crash Regulatory Environment, 2010 Colum.Bus.L.Rev.632, 644 (2010) 。

38704 F.2d 1280, 1288 (D.C.Cir.1983) ;At&T Information Systems v.GSA, 627 F.Supp.1396 (D.C.Cir.1986) .

39参见杨建生著:《美国政府信息公开司法审查研究》, 法律出版社2014年版, 第166页。

40参见Kevin R.McC arthy&John W.Kornmeier, Maintaining the Confidentiality of Confidential Business Information Submitted to the Federal Government, 36 Bus.Law.57, 61 (1980-1981) 。

41Public Citizen Health Research Group v.FDA, 704 F.2d 1280, 1286 (D.C.Cir.1983) .

42S.Rep.No.88-1219, at 6;H.R.Rep.No.89-1497, at 9 (1966) .

43National Parks&Conservation Ass’n v.Morton (National Parks I) .498 F.2d 765, 770 (D.C.Cir.1974) , aff’d en banc National Parks II, 547 F.2d 673.

44Critical Mass Energy Project v.Nuclear Regulatory Comm’n, 975 F.2d 871, 872 (D.C.Cir.1992) .

45441 U.S.281 (1979) .

46National Org.for Women v.Social Sec.Admin., 736 F.2d 727, 745-46 (D.C.Cir.1984) .

47Predisclosure Notification Procedures for Confidential Commercial Information, Exec.Order No.12, 600, 52 Fed.Reg.23, 781 (June 23, 1987) .

48参见王名扬著:《美国行政法》 (上) , 中国法制出版社2005年版, 第1012页。

49如联邦食品和药品监督管理局、环境保护署均有类似的程序, 参见21 C.F.R.§20.44 (1980) (FDA) ;40 C.F.R.§§2.201 (i) , 2.206 (1980) (EPA) 。

50参见G.Branch Taylor, The Critical Mass Decision:A Dangerous Blow to Exemption 4 Litigation, 2 Comm.Law Conspectus 133 (1994) 。

51Pub.Citizen Health Research Group v.FDA, 704 F.2d 1280, 1287 (D.C.Cir.1983) (citing Petkas v.Staats, 501F.2d 887, 889 (D.C.Cir.1974) ) .

52参见Edmund W.Kitch, The Law and Economics of Rights in Valuable Information, 9 J.Legal Stud.683 (1980) 。

53参见Thomas O.McG arity&Sidney A.Shapiro, The Trade Secret Status of Health and Safety Testing Information:Reforming Agency Disclosure Policies, 93 Harv.L.Rev.837 (1979-1980) 。

54Burroughs Corp.v.Schlesinger, 403 F.Supp.633 (E.D.Va.1975) .

55Gulf and Western Industries v.United States, 615 F.2d 527 (1979) .

56参见Richard A.Posner, Information and Antitrust:Reflections on the Gypsum and Engineers Decisions, 67 Geo.L.J.1187 (1978-1979) 。

57Continental Oil v.Federal Power Commission 519 F.2d 31 (5th Cir.1975) , cart dem, 425 U.S.971 (1976) ;Board of Trade of Chicago v.Commodity Futures Trading Commission, 627 F.2d 392 (D.C.Cir.1980) .

58参见Gregory H.McC lure, The Treatment of Contract Prices Under the Trade Secrets Act and Freedom of Information Act Exemption 4:Are Contract Prices Really Trade Secrets?31 Pub.Cont.L.J.185 (2002) 。

59Critical Mass Energy Project v.NRC, 975 F.2d 871, 872 (D.C.Cir.1992) (en banc) , cert.denied, 113 S.Ct.1579 (1993) (citing FBI v.Abramson, 456 U.S.615, 621 (1982) ) .

60参见James T.O’Reilly, “Access to Records”Versus“Access to Evil”:Should Disclosure Laws Consider Motives as a Barrier to Records Release?, 12 Kan.J.L.&Pub.Pol’y 559, 568 (2002-2003) 。

61参见Laurence Tai, Fast Fixes for FOIA, 52 Harv.J.on Legis.455, 483-88 (2015) 。

62参见Margaret B.Kwoka, FOIA, Inc., 65 Duke L.J.1361, 1429 (2016) 。

63参见后向东著:《美国联邦信息公开制度研究》, 中国法制出版社2014年版, 第203页。

64中国学者总结为三个优势:一是可以减少各个行政机关的信息管理成本;二是提高公众获取重要政府信息的效率, 提高政府信息的传播和利用效率;三是以信息公开机构为中心, 实现政府重要信息的传递、保存、管理和归档一体化无缝衔接。参见邢永跃、徐少同:《美国联邦登记制度对中国政府信息公开的借鉴》, 《电子政务》2013年第9期, 第70页。

65参见Frank Easterbrook, Privacy and the Optimal Extent of Disclosure Under the Freedom of Information Act, 9 J.Legal Stud.775, 777 (1980) 。

66参见David C.Vladeck, Information Access-Surveying the Current Legal Landscape of Federal Right-to-Know Laws, 86Tex.L.Rev.1787, 1792-93 (2008) 。

67参见Michael E.Tankersley, How the Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996 Update Public Access for the Information Age, 50 Admin.L.Rev.421 (1998) 。

68参见Michael Gerrard&Michael Herz, Harnessing Information Technology to Improve the Environmental Impact Review Process, 12 N.Y.U.Envtl.L.J.18 (2003) 。

69参见后向东:《美国2016年〈信息自由法〉改革法案述评》, 《电子政务》2016年第10期, 第55页。

70参见OIP Guidance, Proactive Disclosure of Non-Exempt Agency Information:Making Information Available Without the Need to File a FOIA Request, https://www.justice.gov/oip/oip-guidance/proactive_disclosure_of_non-exempt_information, 最近访问时间[2018-04-03]。

71MyE nvironment, U.S.Envtl.Protection Agency, https://www3.epa.gov/enviro/myenviro/, 最近访问时间[2017-10-03]。

72参见Melanie A.Pustay, Memorandums to Messages:The Evolution of FOIA in the Age of the Internet, 126 Yale L.J.F.252, 254 (2016) 。

73参见David E.Pozen, Freedom of Information beyond the Freedom of Information Act, 165 U.Pa.L.Rev.1097, 1150-52 (2017) 。

74参见Exec.Order No.13, 642, Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information, 78Fed.Reg.28, 111 (May 9, 2013) 。

75参见Beth Simone Noveck, Rights-Based and Tech-Driven:Open Data, Freedom of Information, and the Future of Government Transparency, 19 Yale Hum.Rts.&Dev.L.J.1, 3-6 (2017) 。

76Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information, Exec.Order No.13642, 3 C.F.R.§13642 (2013) .

77Data Catalog:Organization Types, https://catalog.data.gov/dataset#sec-organization-type, 最近访问时间[2018-02-02];Nathan Cortez, Regulation by Database, 89 U.Colo.L.Rev.1, 1-2 (2018) 。

78参见Ira Bloom, Freedom of Information Laws in the Digital Age:The Death Knell of Information Privacy, 12 Rich.J.L.&Tech.1, 1 (2005-2006) 。

79参见Cary Coglianese et al., Transparency and Public Participation in the Federal Rulemaking Process:Recommendations for the New Administration, 77 Geo.Wash.L.Rev.925, 937 (2009) 。

80参见Paul Ohm, Broken Promises of Privacy:Responding to the Surprising Failure of Anonymization, 57 UCLA L.Rev.1701 (2010) ;Felix T.Wu, Defining Privacy and Utility in Data Sets, 84 U.Colo.L.Rev.1117 (2013) ;Jane Yakowitz, Tragedy of the Data Commons, 25 Harv.J.L.&Tech.1 (2011) 。

81Public.Resource.Org v.U.S.Internal Revenue Serv., 78 F.Supp.3d 1262 (N.D.Cal.2015) , appeal dismissed No.15-15607 (9th Cir.June 24, 2015) .